HomeMy WebLinkAboutAgenda - Mail Packet - 4/19/2022 - City Council Election Code Committee Materials Part Ii
Campaign Finance Law: An Analysis of Key
Issues, Recent Developments, and
Constitutional Considerations for Legislation
September 24, 2018
Congressional Research Service
https://crsreports.congress.gov
R45320
Congressional Research Service
SUMMARY
Campaign Finance Law: An Analysis of Key
Issues, Recent Developments, and
Constitutional Considerations for Legislation
Federal campaign finance law is composed of a complex set of limits, restrictions, and
requirements on money and other things of value that are spent or contributed in the context of
federal elections. While the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA, or Act) sets forth the
statutory provisions governing this area of law, several Supreme Court and lower court rulings have had a significant impact
on the Act’s regulatory scope. Most notably, since 2003, a series of Supreme Court decisions ha s invalidated several FECA
provisions that were enacted as part of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA), and in 2010, the Court
invalidated a long-standing prohibition on independent expenditures funded from the treasuries of corporations and labor
unions. Generally, the Court has overturned such provisions as unconstitutional violations of First Amendment guarantees of
free speech.
As a foundational matter, FECA distinguishes between a contribution and an expenditure: a contribution involves giving
money to an entity, such as a candidate’s campaign committee, while an expenditure involves spending money directly for
advocacy of the election or defeat of a candidate. Generally, the Supreme Court has upheld limits on contributions, while
invalidating limits on expenditures. FECA regulates campaigns in three primary ways: contribution limits, source restrictions,
and disclosure and disclaimer requirements.
Contribution Limits
Contribution limits refer to how much a donor can contribute as well as how they can contribute. Contribution limits include
specific limits on how much money a donor may contribute to a candidate, party, and political committee, which are known
as base limits. FECA also provides for related restrictions, including the ban on contributions made through a conduit; the
ban on converting campaign contributions for personal use; and the treatment of communications a donor makes in
coordination with a candidate or party as contributions. While the Supreme Court has generally upheld base limits, the Court
has struck down FECA’s aggregate limits, which capped the total amount of money a donor could contribute to all
candidates, parties, and political committees; limits on contributions to candidates whose opponents self-finance; and limits
on contributions by minors. In addition, based on Supreme Court precedent, an appellate court ruling provided the legal
underpinning for the establishment of super PACs.
Source Restrictions
FECA contains several bans, referred to as source restrictions, on who may make campaign contributions. Source restrictions
include the ban on corporate and labor union campaign contributions directly from treasury funds—although the Supreme
Court has held that limits on corporate and labor union independent spending are unconstitutional, the Court has upheld
limits on contributions. Source restrictions also include the ban on federal contractor contributions—known as the “pay-to-
play” prohibition—which the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit upheld against a First Amendment challenge in
2015; the ban on foreign national contributions and expenditures; and the restrictions on foreign national involvement in U.S.
campaigns.
Disclaimer and Disclosure Requirements
FECA also sets forth disclaimer and disclosure requirements. FECA’s disclaimer requirements mandate that statements of
attribution appear directly on campaign-related communications. FECA’s disclosure requirements mandate that political
committees register with the Federal Election Commission (FEC) and comply with periodic reporting requirements. In
addition, the law requires other entities —such as labor unions and corporations, including incorporated organizations that are
tax-exempt under Section 501(c)(4) of the Internal Revenue Code—that make independent expenditures or electioneering
communications to disclose information to the FEC. Generally, the Supreme Court has upheld the constitutionality of
disclaimer and disclosure requirements against First Amendment challenges as substantially related to the governmental
interest of safeguarding the integrity of the electoral process by promoting transparency and accountability.
R45320
September 24, 2018
L. Paige Whitaker
Legislative Attorney
Campaign Finance Law: Analysis of Key Issues and Recent Developments
Congressional Research Service
Criminal Penalties
For knowing and willful violations of any provision of the Act, FECA sets forth criminal penalties, including specific
penalties for violations of the prohibition on contributions made through a conduit. In most instances, the U.S. Department of
Justice initiates the prosecution of criminal violations of FECA, but the law also provides tha t the FEC may refer an apparent
violation to the Justice Department for criminal prosecution under certain circumstances.
Campaign Finance Law: Analysis of Key Issues and Recent Developments
Congressional Research Service
Contents
Brief History of FECA .................................................................................................................... 1
Constitutional Framework ............................................................................................................... 2
Contribution Limits ......................................................................................................................... 4
Specific Limits .......................................................................................................................... 5
Constitutionality of Base and Aggregate Limits ................................................................. 7
Additional Restrictions on Contributions .................................................................................. 9
Ban on Contributions Made Through a Conduit ................................................................. 9
Ban on Conversion of Campaign Contributions for Personal Use ..................................... 9
Coordinated Communications Treated As Contributions ................................................. 10
Constitutionality of Other Contribution Limits ....................................................................... 12
Limits on Contributions to Candidates Whose Opponents Self-Finance .......................... 13
Limits on Contributions Made by Minors ........................................................................ 14
Limits on Contributions to Super PACs ............................................................................ 14
Constitutional Considerations for Legislation ......................................................................... 15
Source Restrictions ........................................................................................................................ 18
Ban on Corporate and Labor Union Contributions: PAC Required ........................................ 18
Corporate and Labor Union Independent Spending Limits Unconstitutional ......................... 19
Ban on Federal Contractor Contributions: “Pay-to-Play” Prohibition .................................... 21
Ban on Foreign National Contributions and Expenditures and Restrictions on Foreign
National Involvement in U.S. Campaigns ............................................................................ 22
Constitutional Considerations for Legislation ......................................................................... 24
Disclaimer and Disclosure Requirements...................................................................................... 25
Disclaimer ............................................................................................................................... 25
Disclaimer Requirements .................................................................................................. 25
Constitutionality of Disclaimer Requirements .................................................................. 26
Disclosure ................................................................................................................................ 26
Independent Expenditure Requirements ........................................................................... 27
Electioneering Communication Requirements ................................................................. 28
Constitutionality of Disclosure ......................................................................................... 29
Constitutional Considerations for Legislation ......................................................................... 31
Criminal Penalties ......................................................................................................................... 32
Tables
Table 1. Major Federal Contribution Limits, 2017-2018 ................................................................ 6
Contacts
Author Information ....................................................................................................................... 33
Campaign Finance Law: Analysis of Key Issues and Recent Developments
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ederal campaign finance law is composed of a complex set of limits, restrictions, and
requirements on money and other things of value that are spent or contributed in the
context of federal elections.1 While the Federal Election Campaign Act2 (FECA, or Act)
sets forth the statutory provisions governing this area of law, several Supreme Court and lower
court rulings also have had a significant impact on the Act’s regulatory scope.3
This report begins with a brief history of FECA and an overview of the constitutional framework
for evaluating campaign finance law. Next, organized by regulatory context, and integrating
governing court precedent, this report analyzes three primary areas of FECA regulation:
contribution limits; source restrictions; and disclaimer and disclosure requirements. In so doing,
the report examines topics of recent interest to Congress, including the permissible uses of
campaign funds; the scope of what constitutes a campaign contribution; the ban on foreign
nationals making contributions and expenditures in connection with U.S. elections; and the
restrictions on foreign nationals participating in campaigns.4 The report also outlines the criminal
penalties that may be imposed under the Act for violations of its provisions.
As the Supreme Court’s campaign finance jurisprudence informs the manner in which campaign
financing may be constitutionally regulated, the report assesses pivotal rulings that may be
instructive should Congress consider legislation in this area. In addition, the report examines
significant lower court rulings, including an appellate court decision that provides the legal
underpinning for the establishment of super PACs. Finally, the report analyzes two cases that
were recently appealed to the Supreme Court. Should the Court decide to review either case,
depending on its contours, the decision could potentially affect the constitutional bounds of future
campaign finance regulation.
Brief History of FECA
In 1971, Congress first enacted FECA, requiring, among other things, campaign finance reporting
by candidates and political committees.5 In response to the Watergate scandal, in 1974, Congress
substantially amended the Act, generally implementing limits on contributions and expenditures,
and creating the Federal Election Commission (FEC) to administer and provide civil enforcement
of FECA.6 As a result of a challenge to the constitutionality of the 1974 Amendments, the
Supreme Court issued its seminal Supreme Court ruling in Buckley v. Valeo, holding, among other
things, mandatory spending limits unconstitutional, and invalidating the original appointment
1 For a discussion of campaign finance policy, see CRS Report R41542, The State of Campaign Finance Policy: Recent
Developments and Issues for Congress, by R. Sam Garrett.
2 Codified, as amended, at 52 U.S.C. §§ 30101-30146. FECA was first enacted in 1971, and was amended in 1974,
1976, 1979, and most recently and significantly, in 2002 by the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA).
3 For further discussion of the Supreme Court’s campaign finance jurisprudence, see CRS Report R43719, Campaign
Finance: Constitutionality of Limits on Contributions and Expenditures, by L. Paige Whitaker.
4 See, e.g., Policy Response to Russian Interference in the 2016 U. S. Elections Before the S . Select Comm. on
Intelligence, 115th Cong., (June 20, 2018) available at https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/hearings/open-hearing-
policy-response-russian-interference-2016-u-s-electionsenate (last visited Sept. 6, 2018); The Modus Operandi and
Toolbox of Russia and Other Autocracies for Undermining Democracies Throughout the World Before the S. Comm.
on the Judiciary Subcommittee on Crime and Terrorism, 115th Cong., (March 15, 2017) available at
https://www.judiciary.senate.gov/meetings/the-modus-operandi-and-toolbox-of-russia-and-other-autocracies-for-
undermining-democracies-throughout-the-world (last visited Sept. 5, 2018).
5 See Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971, P.L. 92-225, 86 Stat. 3 (1971).
6 See Federal Election Campaign Act Amendments of 1974, P.L. 93-443, 88 Stat. 1263 (1974).
F
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structure of the FEC.7 Responding to the Court’s ruling, in 1976, Congress amended FECA in
order to, among other things, restructure the FEC and establish revised contribution limits,8 and
again in 1979, in order to revise certain reporting requirements.9
In 2002, Congress enacted the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA), which contains the
most recent, comprehensive amendments to FECA.10 Among other provisions, BCRA prohibited
corporate and labor union spending on certain advertisements run prior to elections, and restricted
the raising and spending of unregulated or “soft money” in federal elections.
Since 2003, a series of Supreme Court decisions has invalidated several BCRA provisions.11 In
addition, in 2010, the Court invalidated a long-standing prohibition on independent expenditures
funded from the treasuries of corporations and labor unions.12 Generally, the Court has overturned
such provisions as unconstitutional violations of First Amendment guarantees of free speech.13
Accordingly, the body of federal campaign finance law that remains was not originally enacted by
Congress as a comprehensive regulatory policy.
Constitutional Framework
In Buckley, the Supreme Court established the framework for evaluating the constitutionality of
campaign finance regulation. According to the Court, limits on campaign contributions—which
involve giving money to an entity—and expenditures—which involve spending money directly
for electoral advocacy—implicate rights of political expression and association under the First
Amendment.14 The Court, however, afforded different degrees of First Amendment protection and
levels of scrutiny to contributions and expenditures.
Contribution limits are subject to a more lenient standard of review than expenditures, the Court
held, because they impose only a marginal restriction on speech, and will be upheld if the
government can demonstrate that they are a “closely drawn” means of achieving a “sufficiently
important” governmental interest.15 Unlike expenditure limits, which reduce the amount of
expression, the Court opined, contribution limits involve “little direct restraint” on the speech of a
contributor.16 Although the Court acknowledged that a contribution limit restricts an aspect of a
contributor’s freedom of association, that is, his or her ability to support a candidate, nonetheless,
7 424 U.S. 1 (1976).
8 See Federal Election Campaign Act Amendments of 1976, P.L. 94-283, 90 Stat. 475 (1976).
9 See Federal Election Campaign Act Amendments of 1979, P.L. 96-187, 93 Stat. 1339 (1980).
10 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002, P.L. 107-155, 116 Stat. 81 (2002) (codified at 52 U.S.C. §§ 30101-
30146). BCRA is also known as “McCain-Feingold,” in reference to the principal Senate sponsors of the legislation.
11 See, e.g., McConnell v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 540 U.S. 93, 231-32 (2003) (holding, inter alia, that a BCRA
provision prohibiting contributions by minors age 17 or younger violates the First Amendment); Davis v. Fed. Election
Comm’n, 554 U.S. 724, 740, 744 (2010) (holding that a BCRA provision establishing a series of staggered increases in
contribution limits for candidates whose opponents significantly self-finance their campaigns violates the First
Amendment); Citizens United v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 558 U.S. 310 (2010) (holding, inter alia, that a BCRA
provision prohibiting corporate and labor union treasury funds for electioneering communications violates the First
Amendment). See discussion infra, “Contribution Limits,” “Source Restrictions.”
12 See Citizens United v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 558 U.S. 310 (2010), discussed infra, pp. 19-21.
13 The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution provides that “Congress shall make no law . . .abridging the freedom
of speech, or of the press.” U.S. Const. amend. I. This provision limits the government's power to restrict speech.
14 See Buckley, 424 U.S. at 23.
15 Id. at 25.
16 Id. at 21.
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the Court determined that a contribution limit still permits symbolic expressions of support, and
does not infringe on a contributor’s freedom to speak about candidates and issues.17 Reasonable
contribution limits, the Court announced, still permit people to engage in independent political
expression, associate by volunteering on campaigns, and assist candidates by making limited
contributions.18 Regarding whether a contribution limit is closely drawn, the Court reasoned that
it was relevant to examine the amount of the limit.19 Limits that are too low could significantly
impede a candidate or political committee from amassing the necessary resources for effective
communication.20 The Court concluded, however, that the FECA contribution limit at issue in
Buckley would not negatively affect campaign funding.21
On the other hand, the Buckley Court determined that because they impose a substantial restraint
on speech and association, expenditure limits are subject to strict scrutiny, requiring that they be
narrowly tailored to serve a compelling governmental interest.22 Specifically, under the First
Amendment, the Court determined, expenditure limits impose a restriction on the amount of
money that a candidate can spend on communications, thereby reducing the number and depth of
issues discussed and the size of the audience reached.23 Such restrictions, the Court determined,
are not justified by an overriding governmental interest. That is, because expenditures do not
involve money flowing directly to the benefit of a candidate’s campaign fund, the risk of quid pro
quo corruption does not exist.24 Essentially, quid pro quo corruption captures the notion of “a
direct exchange of an official act for money.”25 Further, the Court in Buckley rejected the
government’s asserted interest in equalizing the relative resources of candidates, and in reducing
the overall costs of campaigns.26 Upon a similar premise, the Court rejected the government’s
interest in limiting a wealthy candidate’s ability to draw upon personal wealth to finance his or
her campaign, and struck down a law limiting expenditures from personal funds. When a
candidate self-finances, the Court pointed out, his or her dependence on outside contributions is
reduced, thereby lessening the risk of corruption.27
Importantly, the Court’s most recent major campaign finance decision, McCutcheon v. Federal
Election Commission, announced that only quid pro quo corruption or its appearance constitute a
sufficiently important governmental interest to justify limits on contributions, as well as
expenditures.28 In McCutcheon, the Court reasoned it has consistently rejected campaign finance
regulation based on other governmental objectives, such as goals to “level the playing field,”
“level electoral opportunities,” or “equaliz[e] the financial resources of candidates.”29 While
acknowledging that the Court’s campaign finance jurisprudence has not always discussed the
17 See id. at 21, 24.
18 See id. at 28-29.
19 See id. at 21.
20 See id.
21 See id. (determining that there was no indication that the subject contribution limitations “would have any dramatic
adverse effect on the funding of campaigns and political associations”).
22 See id. at 23.
23 See id.
24 See id.
25 See McCutcheon v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 572 U.S. 185, 192 (2014).
26 See Buckley, 424 U.S. at 53.
27 See id.
28 See McCutcheon, 572 U.S. at 192.
29 Id. at 207.
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concept of corruption clearly and consistently, and that the line between quid pro quo corruption
and general influence may sometimes seem vague, the Court in McCutcheon said that efforts to
ameliorate “influence over or access to” elected officials or political parties do not constitute a
permissible governmental interest.30
Although the Supreme Court’s campaign finance jurisprudence has shifted over the years, as this
report illustrates, reviewing courts have applied the basic Buckley framework when evaluating
whether a campaign finance regulation violates the First Amendment. Therefore, in Buckley and
its progeny, with some exceptions, courts have generally upheld limits on contributions,
concluding that they serve the governmental interest of protecting elections from corruption,
while invalidating limits on independent expenditures, concluding that they do not pose a risk of
corruption.
Contribution Limits
As discussed, FECA sets forth limits and restrictions on campaign contributions in federal
elections. FECA broadly defines a “contribution” to include money or anything of value given for
the purpose of influencing an election for federal office.31 Specifically, FECA defines
contributions to include “any gift, subscription, loan, advance, or deposit of money or anything of
value” that is made “for the purpose of influencing any election for Federal office” or a payment
that is made for compensation of personal services that are rendered to a political committee free
of charge.32
As outlined above, FECA expressly defines contributions to include loans made to campaign
committees; however, the Act exempts from such definition loans that are made from banks, so
long as they are made in compliance with applicable law and “in the ordinary course of
business.”33 Further, the Act specifies that a bank loan to a campaign committee must be
evidenced by a written instrument, ensuring repayment on a date certain or in accordance with an
amortization schedule, and subject to the lending institution’s “usual and customary interest
rate.”34 However, in the case of other loans made to a campaign—for example, personal loans—
the outstanding balance is considered a campaign contribution.35 Therefore, the amount of an
unpaid loan, coupled with other contributions made by an individual to a given candidate or
committee, cannot exceed the applicable contribution limit.36 Once a loan is repaid in full, the
amount of the loan is no longer considered a contribution.37
The following sections of the report provide an overview of FECA’s limits and restrictions on
contributions, including a discussion of key constitutional rulings.
30 Id. at 208.
31 52 U.S.C. § 30101(8)(A).
32 Id. § 30101(8)(A)(i), (ii).
33 52 U.S.C. § 30101(8)(B)(vii).
34 Id. § 30101(8)(B)(vii)(II), (III).
35 11 C.F.R. § 100.52(b).
36 Id. § 100.52(b)(2).
37 Id.
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Specific Limits
FECA provides specific limits on how much individuals can contribute to a candidate, and these
limits are periodically adjusted for inflation in odd-numbered years.38 For example, in the 2017-
2018 federal election cycle, an individual can contribute up to $2,700, per election, to a
candidate.39
Table 1, below, outlines the major federal campaign contribution limits applicable to the 2017-
2018 cycle.
38 Id. § 30116(a).
39 See Fed. Election Comm’n, “Contribution Limits for 2017 -18 Federal Elections,” available at
https://transition.fec.gov/info/contriblimitschart1718.pdf (last visited Aug. 16, 2018).
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Table 1. Major Federal Contribution Limits, 2017-2018
(see table notes below for additional information)
Recipient
Contributor
Principal
Campaign
Committee
Multicandidate
Committee (most
PACs, including
leadership PACs)
National Party
Committee
(DSCC; NRCC, etc.)
State, District,
Local Party
Committee
Individual $2,700 per electiona $5,000 per year $33,900 per yeara
Additional $101,700 limit
for each special party
accountab
$10,000 per year
(combined limit)
Principal
Campaign
Committee
$2,000 per election $5,000 per year Unlimited transfers to
party committees
Unlimited
transfers to
party
committees
Multicandidate
Committee (most
PACs, including
leadership PACs)c
$5,000 per election $5,000 per year $15,000 per year
Additional $45,000 limit
for each special party
accountb
$5,000 per year
(combined limit)
State, District,
Local Party
Committee
$5,000 per election
(combined limit)
$5,000 per year
(combined limit)
Unlimited transfers to
party committees
Unlimited
transfers to
party
committees
National Party
Committee
$5,000 per election $5,000 per year Unlimited transfers to
party committees
Unlimited
transfers to
party
committees
Source: Table 1 in CRS Report R41542, The State of Campaign Finance Policy: Recent Developments and Issues for
Congress, by R. Sam Garrett, adapted from Federal Election Commission, “Contribution Limits for 2017-2018
Federal Elections,” https://transition.fec.gov/info/contriblimitschart1718.pdf (last visited August 16, 2018).
Notes: The table assumes that leadership PACs would qualify for multicandidate status. The original source,
noted above, includes additional information and addresses non-multicandidate PACs (which are relatively rare).
The national party committee and the national party Senate committee (e.g., the DNC and DSCC, or RNC and
NRSC) share a combined 2017-2018 per-candidate limit of $47,400 per six-year cycle. This limit is adjusted
biennially for inflation.
a. These limits are adjusted biennially for inflation.
b. National party committees may accept these contributions for separate accounts for (1) presidential
nominating conventions; (2) recounts and other legal compliance activities; and (3) party buildings. For
additional discussion, see CRS Report R43825, Increased Campaign Contribution Limits in the FY2015 Omnibus
Appropriations Law: Frequently Asked Questions, by R. Sam Garrett.
c. Multicandidate committees are those that have been registered with the FEC (or, for Senate committees, the
Secretary of the Senate) for at least six months; have received federal contributions from more than 50
people; and (except for state parties) have made contributions to at least five federal candidates. See 11
C.F.R. § 100.5(e)(3). In practice, most PACs attain this status automatically over time.
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Constitutionality of Base and Aggregate Limits
In Buckley, the Court upheld the constitutionality of FECA40 base limits, which limit the amounts
of money an individual can contribute to a candidate, party, or political committee.41 In the years
since, the Court has applied the principles articulated in Buckley to uphold what it considers
reasonable contribution limits, while invalidating limits it determines are too low to allow a
candidate to amass necessary resources for effective campaigning. For example, in Nixon v.
Shrink Missouri Government PAC, the Court upheld a state law imposing limits on contributions
made to candidates running for state office.42 While observing that contribution limits must be
closely drawn to a sufficiently important interest, the Court announced that the amount of the
limitation “need not be ‘fine tuned.’”43 In contrast, in Randall v. Sorell, in a plurality opinion, the
Court invalidated a Vermont law that provided that individuals, parties, and political committees
were limited to contributing $400 to certain state candidates, per two-year election cycle, without
providing for inflation adjustment.44 While unable to reach consensus on a single opinion, six
Justices agreed that Vermont’s contribution limits violated First Amendment free-speech
guarantees. The plurality opinion written by Justice Breyer, joined by two other Justices,
determined that the contribution limits in Randall were substantially lower than limits the Court
had previously upheld, as well as limits in effect in other states, and that they were not narrowly
tailored.45 The opinion also concluded that the limits substantially restricted candidates,
particularly challengers, from being able to raise the funds necessary to run a competitive
campaign; impeded parties from getting their candidates elected; and deterred individual citizens
from volunteering on campaigns (because the law counted certain volunteer expenses toward a
volunteer’s individual contribution limit).46
In contrast to base contribution limits, FECA also provided for limits on the amount of money a
donor could contribute in total to all candidates, parties, and political committees, which is
referred to as aggregate contribution limits. In its most recent campaign finance decision,
McCutcheon, the Supreme Court held that aggregate contribution limits are unconstitutional
under the First Amendment.47 Characterizing them as an “outright ban” on further contributions
once the aggregate amount has been reached, the Court determined that they violate the First
40 FECA contribution limits are codified at 52 U.S.C. § 30116(a) and are adjusted biannually for inflation, 52 U.S.C. §
30116(c). In Buckley, the Supreme Court evaluated the constitutionality of certain provisions of federal campaign
finance law, including the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) of 1971, as amended in 1974. In sum, the FECA
provisions at issue included (1) a $1,000 contribution limit to any candidate by any individual; (2) a $25,000 limit on an
individual’s annual, aggregate contributions; (3) a $1,000 cap on a person’s or group’s independent expenditures
“relative to a clearly identified candidate”; (4) spending limits on various candidates for various federal offices; and (5)
spending limits on political parties’ national conventions.
41 424 U.S. 1 (1976).
42 528 U.S. 377 (2000).
43 Id. at 387-88 (quoting Buckley, 424 U.S. at 30, n. 3).
44 548 U.S. 230, 262 (2006).
45 See id. at 261.
46 See id. at 253, 259-60. The opinion agreed with the district court “that the Act’s contribution limits ‘would reduce the
voice of political parties’ in Vermont to a ‘whisper.’” Id. at 259 (quoting Landell v. Sorrell, 118 F. Supp. 2d 459, 487
(D. Vt. 2000)).
47 572 U.S. 185 (2014). For discussion of the policy impact of McCutcheon, see CRS Report R43334, Campaign
Contribution Limits: Selected Questions About McCutcheon and Policy Issues for Congress, by R. Sam Garrett.
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Amendment by infringing on political expression and association rights, without furthering the
governmental interest of preventing quid pro quo corruption or its appearance.48
In Buckley v. Valeo, the Court had upheld the constitutionality of a $25,000 federal aggregate
contribution limit then in effect,49 characterizing that limit as a “quite modest restraint” that
served to prevent circumvention of base limits.50 In other words, the Court determined that the
aggregate limits constrained an individual from, for example, contributing large amounts to a
particular candidate through “the use of unearmarked contributions to political committees likely
to contribute to that candidate.”51 In McCutcheon, however, the Court invalidated a BCRA
provision that imposed biennial limits on aggregate contributions, which were adjusted for
inflation each election cycle.52 For example, during the 2011-2012 election cycle, the Act
prohibited individuals from making contributions to candidates totaling more than $46,200, and
to parties and PACs (with the exception of “super PACs”) totaling more than $70,800.53 (The base
limits on contributions established by BCRA were not at issue in this case and remain in effect.)
As a threshold matter, the plurality opinion in McCutcheon determined that, regardless of whether
strict scrutiny or the “closely drawn” standard applies, the analysis requires the Court to “assess
the fit” between the government’s stated objective and the means to achieve it.54 Applying that
analysis to FECA’s aggregate contribution limits, the opinion observed a “substantial mismatch”
between the two, and concluded that even under the more lenient standard of review, the limits
could not be upheld.55 The plurality in McCutcheon concluded that Buckley’s holdings on
aggregate limits did not control56 because the Buckley Court had engaged in minimal analysis of
aggregate limits, and further, the limits at issue in McCutcheon established a different statutory
regime and operated under a distinct legal backdrop.57 The Court reasoned that, since Buckley,
Congress had enacted other statutory and regulatory safeguards against circumvention of base
limits.58 The opinion also outlined additional safeguards that Congress could enact to prevent
circumvention of base contribution limits, such as targeted restrictions on transfers among
candidates and political committees or enhanced restrictions on earmarking, but cautioned that
the opinion was not meant to evaluate the validity of any particular proposal.59 Further
distinguishing the holding in Buckley, the McCutcheon plurality emphasized that aggregate
contribution limits restrict how many candidates and committees an individual can support,60
48 Id. at 204.
49 Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. at 38.
50 Id.
51 Id.
52 52 U.S.C. § 30116(a)(3).
53 Of that amount, no more than $46,200 could be contributed to state and local parties. In comparison, during the same
election cycle, individuals were subject to individual base limits of $2,500 per candidate, per election; $30,800 per year
to national parties; $10,000 per year to state, local and district party committees combined; and $5,000 per year to
PACs. Contributions to super PACs are not subject to limits. See infra at pp. 14-15.
54 See McCutcheon, 572 U.S at 199.
55 Id.
56 See id. at 200.
57 See id.
58 See id. at 200-01.
59 See id. at 221-23.
60 Id. Once an individual contributed $5,200 each to nine candidates, the aggregate limits were triggered and, as the
opinion calculates, the individual was then prohibited from making further contributions, up to the maximum permitted
by the base limits, to other candidates.
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which creates an “outright ban” on further contributions. This ban, the opinion concluded,
unconstitutionally restricts both free speech and association rights.
Importantly, it was in McCutcheon that the Court announced that the prevention of quid pro quo
corruption or its appearance is the only legitimate governmental interest for restricting campaign
contributions.61 According to the opinion, the spending of large sums of money in connection
with elections, but absent an effort to control how an officeholder exercises his or her official
duties, does not give rise to quid pro quo corruption.62 Although McCutcheon did not expressly
adopt a stricter standard of review for contribution limits, its announcement that only quid pro
quo corruption or its appearance serve as a compelling governmental interest may affect the
degree to which contribution limits are upheld in future rulings.
Additional Restrictions on Contributions
Ban on Contributions Made Through a Conduit
In addition to limiting the amount a donor may contribute to a campaign, FECA also places
certain restrictions on the types of contributions that a donor can make. For example, FECA
prohibits contributions made through a conduit—that is, by one person “in the name of another
person”—and bans candidates from knowingly accepting such contributions.63 This provision
serves to prevent an individual, who has already contributed the maximum amount to a given
candidate, from circumventing contribution limits by giving money to someone else to contribute
to that same candidate. Regulations the FEC promulgated under FECA further specify that a
corporation is prohibited from reimbursing employees for their campaign contributions through a
bonus, expense account, or other form of compensation.64 Notably, as discussed below in the
section of the report entitled “Criminal Penalties,” FECA provides for specific penalties for
knowing and willful violations of this provision.65
Ban on Conversion of Campaign Contributions for Personal Use
FECA also expressly prohibits a candidate from converting campaign funds for personal use.66
Specifically, the Act considers a contribution to be converted to personal use if it is used to fulfill
any commitment, obligation, or expense that would exist “irrespective” of the candidate’s
campaign or duties as a federal officeholder. Examples of such expenses include home mortgage,
rent, or utility payments; clothing purchases; non-campaign-related car expenses; country club
memberships; vacations; household food; tuition payments; admission to sporting events,
concerts, theater performances, or other entertainment not associated with a campaign; and health
club fees.67
61 See id. at 192 (citing Citizens United v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 558 U.S. at 359).
62 The Court explained that “[t]he hallmark of corruption is the financial quid pro quo: dollars for political favors.” Id.
at 192 (quoting Fed. Election Comm’n v. Nat’l Conservative Political Action Comm., 470 U.S. at 497).
63 52 U.S.C. § 30122.
64 11 C.F.R. §114.5(b)(1).
65 See infra p. 33.
66 52 U.S.C. § 30114(b).
67 52 U.S.C. § 30114(b)(2); 11 C.F.R. §113.1(g).
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Notably, in 2018, the FEC decided that a candidate may pay for child care expenses with
campaign funds if they are incurred as a direct result of campaign activity.68 According to the
FEC, applying the irrespective test, if child care expenses are incurred as a direct result of
campaign activity, “they would not exist irrespective” of the campaign.69
Coordinated Communications Treated As Contributions
FECA defines an “independent expenditure” to mean an expenditure by a person that expressly
advocates the election or defeat of a clearly identified candidate, and “is not made in concert or
cooperation with or at the request or suggestion of” the candidate or a party.70 In contrast, FECA
provides that a communication will be considered “coordinated” if it is made “in cooperation,
consultation or concert, with, or at the request or suggestion of” the candidate or a party.71 In
other words, if a communication—such as a political advertisement—is made in coordination
with a candidate or political party, it is treated as an in-kind contribution to the corresponding
candidate or party, or as a coordinated party expenditure, rather than as an independent
expenditure.72 Like other contributions, in-kind contributions and coordinated party expenditures
are subject to FECA limits and source restrictions, which are discussed in the next section of the
report.73
The regulatory line between coordinated communications and independent expenditures is based
on Supreme Court precedent. In various rulings, the Court has determined that the First
Amendment does not allow any limits on expenditures that are made independently of a candidate
or party because the money is deployed to advance a political point of view separate from a
candidate’s viewpoint. In other words, the Court has explained, without coordination or
“prearrangement” with a candidate, not only is the value of an expenditure decreased, but so is
“the danger that expenditures will be given as a quid pro quo for improper commitments from the
candidate.”74 Accordingly, the Court has reasoned that independent expenditures do not raise
heightened governmental interests in regulation.75 As the Court has emphasized, the
“constitutionally significant fact” of an independent expenditure is the absence of coordination
between the candidate and the source of the expenditure,76 and the independence of such spending
is easily distinguishable when it is made “without any candidate's approval (or wink or nod).”77
Hence, individuals, political parties, political action committees (PACs), super PACs, and other
68 Fed. Election Comm’n Advisory Opinion (AO) 2018-06.
69 Id. at 3.
70 52 U.S.C. § 30101(17).
71 Id. § 30116(a)(7)(B)(i),(ii).
72 11 C.F.R. § 109.21(b). This portion of the report contains a summary discussion of what constitutes coordination
under federal campaign finance law. For further information, consult the Federal Election Commission, FECA
regulations, and the Fed. Election Comm’n webpage, Coordinated Communications, available at
https://www.fec.gov/help-candidates-and-committees/candidate-taking-receipts/coordinated-communications/ (last
visited Sept. 8, 2018). See also, CRS Report RS22644, Coordinated Party Expenditures in Federal Elections: An
Overview, by R. Sam Garrett and L. Paige Whitaker.
73 52 U.S.C. § 30116(a)(7)(B)(i),(ii).
74 Citizens United, 558 U.S. 310, 357 (2010) (citing Buckley, 424 U.S. at 47). See infra pp. 19-21.
75 See Buckley, 424 U.S. 1, 47 (1976); Fed. Election Comm’n v. Nat’l Conservative Political Action Comm. (NCPAC),
470 U.S. 480 (1985)); Colorado Republican Fed. Campaign Comm. v. Fed. Election Comm’n (Colorado I), 518 U.S.
604, 617 (1996).
76 See Colorado I, 518 U.S. at 617.
77 Fed. Election Comm’n v. Colorado Republican Fed. Campaign Comm. (Colorado II), 533 U.S. 431, 442 (2001).
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organizations can engage in unlimited independent expenditures. Furthermore, as a result of the
Court’s ruling in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, discussed further below,
corporations and labor unions have a constitutionally protected right to engage in unlimited
independent expenditures directly from their revenue funds or “general treasuries” and are not
required to establish a PAC in order to conduct such spending.78
As summarized below, regulations promulgated under FECA set forth specific criteria
establishing when a communication by an organization will be considered coordinated with a
candidate or a party and thereby treated as a contribution.79 Specifically, the regulations set forth a
three-prong test whereby if all prongs of the test are met—payment, content, and conduct—a
communication will be deemed coordinated:
Payment. In general, the regulations provide that the “payment” standard is met if the
communication is paid for, in whole or in part, by a person other than the candidate, a candidate
committee, or party.80
Content. The “content” standard addresses the subject and timing of a communication. The
content standard does not require that a communication contain express advocacy (i.e., expressly
advocating the election or defeat of a clearly identified candidate, using terms such as “vote for,”
“elect,” or “vote against”).81 Generally, the regulations provide that the content standard is met if
a communication is
an electioneering communication, which is defined to include a broadcast, cable,
or satellite communication that refers to a federal candidate, made within 60 days
of a general election or 30 days of a primary;82
a public communication that distributes or republishes, in whole or in part,
candidate campaign materials, with certain exceptions;
a public communication that expressly advocates election or defeat of a clearly
identified candidate or is the “functional equivalent of express advocacy”; or
a public communication that, in part, refers to a candidate or party and, for House
or Senate elections, is disseminated within 90 days before a primary or general
election or, for presidential and vice presidential elections, is disseminated within
120 days before a primary or nominating convention or caucus.83
Conduct. The “conduct” standard addresses interactions between the person paying for the
communication and the relevant candidate or party. Generally, the regulations specify that the
conduct standard is met if
the communication is created at the “request or suggestion of” a candidate or
party, or at the suggestion of the funder of the communication and the candidate
or party assents to the suggestion;
the candidate or party is “materially involved” in decisions regarding the
communication;
78 See Citizens United, 558 U.S. 310. See infra pp. 19-21.
79 11 C.F.R § 109.21.
80 Id. § 109.21(a).
81 11 C.F.R. § 109.21(c).
82 52 U.S.C. § 30104(f)(3)); 11 C.F.R. §100.29.
83 Id. §§ 109.21(c), 109.23.
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the communication is created after “substantial discussions” between the funder
of the communication and the candidate or party;
the funder of the communication employs a “common vendor” meeting certain
criteria to create the communication; or
a person who has previously been an employee or independent contractor of a
candidate or party during the previous 120 days uses or conveys certain
information to the funder of the communication.84
Exceptions or “Safe Harbors.” FECA regulations also set forth several “safe harbors”
exempting communications from being deemed coordinated. Below are a few examples,
summarized.
Endorsements and Solicitations. A public communication in which a federal
candidate endorses or solicits funds for another federal or nonfederal candidate is
not considered coordinated with respect to the endorsement or the solicitation,
unless the public communication “promotes, supports, attacks, or opposes” the
endorsing candidate or another candidate running for the same office.85
Firewalls. The “conduct” standards are not met if the commercial vendor, former
employee, or political committee established a firewall that meets certain
requirements, including a prohibition on the flow of information between
employees or consultants providing services for the funder of the
communication, and employees or consultants providing services to the candidate
or the candidate’s opponent or a party. The firewall must be described in a
written policy that is distributed to all relevant employees, consultants, and
clients.86
Publicly Available Information. If information material to the creation of a
communication was obtained from a publicly available source, the other
“conduct” standards are not met, unless the communication was made at the
“request or suggestion” of a candidate or party, or at the suggestion of the funder
of the communication and the candidate or party assents to the suggestion.87
Legislative Inquiries. If a candidate or party responds to an inquiry about its
position on a legislative or policy issue—but not including campaign plans,
projects, activities, or needs—the “conduct” standards are not met.88
Constitutionality of Other Contribution Limits
In addition to invalidating the BCRA provision setting forth aggregate contribution limits,
discussed above, the Supreme Court has also invalidated the BCRA provisions establishing limits
on contributions whose opponents significantly self-finance and the limits on contributions by
minors. Furthermore, in a ruling that provided the legal underpinning for the establishment of
super PACs, an appellate court has ruled that limits on contributions to groups that make only
independent expenditures are unconstitutional. The following sections of the report briefly
examine these rulings.
84 Id. § 109.21(d).
85 Id. § 109.21 (g).
86 Id. § 109.21(h).
87 Id. § 109.21(d).
88 Id. § 109.21(f).
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Limits on Contributions to Candidates Whose Opponents Self-Finance
In 2008, the Court held, in Davis v. Federal Election Commission, that a statute establishing a
series of staggered increases in contribution limits for candidates whose opponents significantly
self-finance their campaigns violates the First Amendment, because the penalty imposed on
expenditures of personal funds is not justified by the compelling governmental interest of
lessening corruption or its appearance.89 Enacted as part of BCRA, the invalidated provision of
law is known as the “Millionaire’s Amendment.”90 The Millionaire’s Amendment provided a
complex statutory formula (using limits that were in effect at the time the Court considered
Davis) requiring that if a candidate for the House of Representatives spent more than $350,000 of
personal funds during an election cycle, the individual contribution limits applicable to her
opponent were increased from the then-current limit ($2,300 per election) to up to triple that
amount (or $6,900 per election). Similarly, for Senate candidates, a separate provision generally
raised individual contribution limits for a candidate whose opponent exceeded a designated
threshold level of personal campaign funding that was based on the number of eligible voters in
the state.91 For both House and Senate candidates, the increased contribution limits were
eliminated when parity in spending was reached between the two candidates.
While acknowledging the long history of jurisprudence upholding the constitutionality of
individual contribution limits, the Court emphasized its definitive rejection of any limits on a
candidate’s expenditure of personal funds to finance campaign speech.92 The Court reasoned that
limits on a candidate’s right to advocate for his or her own election are not justified by the
compelling governmental interest of preventing corruption—instead, the use of personal funds
actually lessens a candidate’s reliance on outside contributions and thereby counteracts coercive
pressures and risks of abuse that contribution limits seek to avoid.93
Although conceding that the Millionaire’s Amendment did not directly impose a limit on a
candidate’s expenditure of personal funds, the Court concluded that it impermissibly required a
candidate to make a choice between the right of free political expression and being subjected to
discriminatory contribution limits, and created a fundraising advantage for his or her opponents.94
In contrast, if the law had simply increased the contribution limits for all candidates—both the
self-financed candidate as well as the opponent—the Court opined that it would have passed
constitutional muster.95 Intrinsically, candidates have different strengths based on factors such as
personal wealth, fundraising ability, celebrity status, or a well-known family name, and by
attempting to level electoral opportunities, the Court reasoned, Congress is deciding which
89 See Davis v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 555 U.S. at 740, 744 (2008).
90 P.L. 107-155, § 319(a), 116 Stat. 81 (2002) (codified at 52 U.S.C. § 30117(a)) (establishing increased contribution
limits for House candidates whose opponents significantly self-finance their campaigns).
91 Id. at § 304 (codified at 52 U.S.C. § 30116(i)) (establishing increased contribution limits for Senate candidates whose
opponents significantly self-finance their campaigns).
92 Davis, 554 U.S. at 738.
93 See id. In response to the FEC’s argument that the statute’s “asymmetrical limits” are justified because they level the
playing field for candidates of differing personal wealth, the Court explained that its campaign finance precedent offers
no support for this rationale serving as a compelling governmental interest. Id. at 741.
94 See id.
95 See id. at 737.
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candidate strengths should be allowed to affect an election.96 And using election law to influence
voters’ choices, the Court warned, is a “dangerous business.”97
Limits on Contributions Made by Minors
In 2003, in McConnell v. Federal Election Commission, by a unanimous vote, the Court
invalidated as unconstitutional under the First Amendment a BCRA provision98 prohibiting
individuals age 17 or younger from making contributions to candidates and political parties.99
Reasoning that minors enjoy First Amendment protection and that contribution limits impinge on
such rights, the Court determined that the prohibition was not closely drawn to serve a
sufficiently important government interest.100
In response to the government’s assertion that such a prohibition protects against corruption by
conduit—that is, parents donating through their minor children to circumvent contribution
limits—the Court saw little evidence to support the existence of this type of evasion.101
Furthermore, the Court postulated that such circumvention of contribution limits may be deterred
by the FECA provision prohibiting contributions in the name of another person, discussed above,
and the knowing acceptance of contributions made in the name of another person.102 Even
assuming that a sufficiently important interest could be provided in support of the prohibition, the
Court determined that the prohibition was overinclusive.103 While observing that various states
have adopted more tailored approaches to address this issue—for example, by counting
contributions by minors toward the total permitted for a parent or family unit, imposing a lower
cap on contributions by minors, and prohibiting contributions by very young children—the Court
expressly declined to decide whether any such alternatives would pass muster.104
Limits on Contributions to Super PACs
Providing the legal underpinning for the creation of super PACs, in 2010, the U.S. Court of
Appeals for the District of Columbia (D.C. Circuit) held that limits on contributions to groups
making only independent expenditures are unconstitutional.105 In view of the Supreme Court’s
decision in Citizens United106—decided only months before—holding that independent
expenditures do not give rise to corruption, the D.C. Circuit, in SpeechNow.org v. Federal
Election Commission, concluded that campaign contributions to groups making only independent
expenditures similarly do not give rise to corruption.107 Citizens United is discussed in greater
96 See id.
97 Id.
98 P.L. 107-155, § 318, (codified at 52 U.S.C. § 30126).
99 540 U.S. 93 (2003).
100 See id. at 231-32 (citing Tinker v. Des Moines Indep. Cmty. Sch. Dist., 393 U.S. 503, 511-513 (1969); Buckley, 424
U.S. at 20-22).
101 See id.
102 See id.
103 See id. at 232.
104 See id.
105 See SpeechNow.org v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 599 F.3d 686 (D.C. Cir. 2010), cert. denied, Keating v. Fed.
Election Comm’n, 562 U.S. 1003 (2010).
106 See Citizens United, 558 U.S. at 310 (2010). See infra pp. 19-21.
107 See SpeechNow.org, 599 F.3d at 694-95.
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detail below, in the portion of the report discussing source restrictions applicable to corporations
and labor unions.
In Citizens United, the Court relied, in part, on its ruling in Buckley108 holding that expenditures
made “totally independently”—in other words, not coordinated with any candidate or party—do
not create a risk of corruption or its appearance, and therefore, cannot be constitutionally
limited.109 Accordingly, the D.C. Circuit in SpeechNow.org reasoned that the government does not
have an anticorruption interest in limiting contributions to groups that make only independent
expenditures. The SpeechNow.org court further concluded that FECA contribution limits are
unconstitutional as applied to such groups.110 Such groups have come to be known as super PACs
or Independent Expenditure-only Committees.111
Since SpeechNow was decided, the FEC has issued advisory opinions (AOs) providing guidance
regarding the establishment and administration of super PACs. For example, the FEC concluded
that a corporation that is exempt from tax under Section 501(c)(4) of the Internal Revenue Code
may establish and administer a political committee that makes only independent expenditures,
and may accept unlimited contributions from individuals.112 The FEC confirmed that such
committees may also accept unlimited contributions from corporations, labor unions, and political
committees, in addition to individuals.113 The FEC also determined that when fundraising for
super PACs, federal candidates, officeholders, and party officials are subject to FECA fundraising
restrictions.114 That is, they can solicit contributions only up to $5,000 from individuals and
federal PACs.
Constitutional Considerations for Legislation
Should Congress decide to enact legislation that further restricts campaign contributions, the
Supreme Court’s campaign finance jurisprudence provides guidance as to the constitutional
bounds reviewing courts may apply to such limits. As discussed above, the Court has expressly
held several provisions of FECA unconstitutional:
individual, party, and political committee contribution limits that the Court deemed to
be unreasonably low;115
108 424 U.S. 1 (1976).
109 Id. at 47. (“Unlike contributions, such independent expenditures may well provide little assistance to the candidate’s
campaign and indeed may prove counterproductive. The absence of prearrangement and coordination of an expenditure
with the candidate or his agent not only undermines the value of the expenditure to the candidate, but also alleviates the
danger that expenditures will be given as a quid pro quo for improper commitments from the candidate.”).
110 See SpeechNow.org, 599 F.3d at 694-96. See also, Carey v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 791 F. Supp. 2d 121 (D.D.C.
2011) (enjoining the FEC from enforcing contribution limits against a nonconnected PAC —i.e., a PAC unaffiliated
with a corporation or union—for its independent expenditures, as long as the PAC maintained a bank account for its
unlimited contributions separate from its account subject to limits; proportionally paid related administrative costs; and
complied with the applicable monetary limits of hard money contributions).
111 For further discussion, see CRS Report R42042, Super PACs in Federal Elections: Overview and Issues for
Congress, by R. Sam Garrett.
112 Fed. Election Comm’n AO 2010-09.
113 Fed. Election Comm’n AO 2010-11.
114 Fed. Election Comm’n AO 2011-12.
115 See Randall, 548 U.S. at 262 (invalidating a Vermont law that included a limit of $400 on individual, party, and
political committee contributions to certain state candidates, per two-year election cycle, without providing for inflation
adjustment). See supra p. 7.
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limits on how much money a donor may contribute in total to all candidates, parties,
and political committees (i.e., “aggregate limits”);116
a series of staggered increases in contribution limits applicable to candidates whose
opponents significantly self-finance their campaigns;117 and
a prohibition on campaign contributions by minors age 17 or younger.118
More broadly, and perhaps most instructive for Congress in evaluating further legislative options,
the Court has stated unequivocally, in McCutcheon, that the only legitimate justification for
limiting campaign contributions is avoiding quid pro quo candidate corruption or its
appearance.119 Hence, the Court has signaled that the likelihood of contribution limits being
upheld increases to the degree that Congress can demonstrate that the limits are narrowly tailored
to serve this governmental interest. In contrast, while acknowledging that Congress may seek to
accomplish other “well intentioned” policy goals—such as lessening influence over or access to
elected officials, decreasing the costs of campaigns, and equalizing financial resources among
candidates—the Court has announced that such interests will not serve to justify contribution
limits.120 As the Court reiterated in McCutcheon, when enacting laws that limit speech, the
government bears the burden of proving the constitutionality of such restrictions.121
As discussed in earlier sections of this report, traditionally, the Court has subjected contribution
limits to less rigorous scrutiny under the First Amendment than expenditure limits, and therefore,
with some significant exceptions, the Court has generally upheld such limits.122 Some
commentators have argued that the Supreme Court in McCutcheon may have signaled a
willingness in future cases to evaluate contribution limits under a stricter standard of review than
it has in the past.123 Should the Court decide to apply a stricter level of scrutiny to contribution
limits in future cases, legislation providing for enhanced contribution limits would be less likely
to survive constitutional challenges. Furthermore, a stricter standard of review could likewise
result in successful challenges to existing contribution limits, including the limits on individual
contributions to candidates and parties.
Looking ahead, there are at least two cases recently appealed to the Supreme Court which, should
the Court review, could potentially shed light on the constitutional bounds of contribution limits
and provide Congress with guidance for evaluating legislative options. By a 2-to-1 vote, in Lair v.
Motl, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit (Ninth Circuit) upheld a Montana law124
116 See McCutcheon, 572 U.S. at 218 (invalidating FECA’s aggregate contribution limits). See supra p. 9.
117 See Davis, 554 U.S. at 740 (invalidating FECA’s limits on contributions to candidates whose opponents
significantly self-finance). See supra pp. 13-14.
118 See McConnell, 540 U.S. at 232. See supra p. 14.
119 See McCutcheon, 572 U.S. at 192 (citing Citizens United v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 558 U.S. 310, 359 (2010)).
120 Id. at 207-08.
121 See McCutcheon, 572 U.S. at 210 (citing U.S. v. Playboy Entm’t Grp., Inc., 529 U.S. 803, 816 (2000)).
122 See supra pp. 2-3.
123 See Richard Briffault, The Uncertain Future of the Corporate Contribution Ban, 49 VAL. U. L. REV. 397, 398
(2015) (stating that McCutcheon “subtly ratcheted up the Court’s standard of review of contribution restrictions”);
Robert Yablon, Campaign Finance Reform Without Law, 103 IOWA L. REV. 185, 201 (2017) (characterizing the
Supreme Court in McCutcheon as “nudg[ing] the governing standard in the direction of strict scrutiny”). See also James
Bopp, Jr., Randy Elf, and Anita Y. Milanovich, Symposium: Money In Politics: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly:
Article and Speech: Contribution Limits After McCutcheon v. FEC, 49 VAL. U.L. REV. 361, 389 (2015) (maintaining
that “[b]ecause of McCutcheon, key circuit court decisions that previously upheld limits on direct contributions to
candidates are no longer legally sound”).
124 MONT. CODE ANN. § 13-37-216.
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establishing limits for how much individuals, political action committees, and parties could
contribute to state candidates. The Ninth Circuit held that the limits were justified by and
adequately tailored to the government’s interest in avoiding quid pro quo corruption or its
appearance.125 According to the Ninth Circuit, the state had sufficiently demonstrated a risk of
actual or perceived quid pro quo corruption in Montana politics, including indications of attempts
to exchange campaign contributions for legislative action.126 On appeal, the petitioners argue,
among other things, that the Ninth Circuit decision conflicts with Supreme Court precedent
requiring that a state provide evidence of quid pro quo corruption or its appearance and that
showing a mere “risk” of such corruption is insufficient.127 Interpreting the Supreme Court’s 2016
ruling in McDonnell v. U.S.—a case arising in the context of federal public corruption law rather
than campaign finance law—to define quid pro quo corruption as “1) a quid (things of value
given to an official); 2) a pro (the unambiguous agreement connecting the quid to the quo); and 3)
a quo (an official act),” the petitioners argue that Montana could not demonstrate such
evidence.”128 If the Court decides to review Lair, its ruling could clarify the extent to which the
government is required to present evidence of quid pro quo corruption in order to justify
contribution limits.129
Likewise, in Zimmerman v. City of Austin,130 a unanimous three-judge panel of the U.S. Court of
Appeals for the Fifth Circuit (Fifth Circuit) affirmed a lower court ruling that, among other
things, upheld a base campaign contribution limit applicable to mayor and city council candidates
of $300 per contributor, per election, adjusted annually for inflation, which was $350 at the time
the suit was filed.131 Relying on Supreme Court precedent establishing that contribution limits are
subject to “less searching scrutiny” than expenditure limits, the Fifth Circuit upheld the
contribution limit, determining that the City of Austin had shown “a sufficiently important
interest in preventing either actual corruption or its appearance.”132 Among other evidence, the
Fifth Circuit concluded that the government had demonstrated that prior to the enactment of the
limits, the citizenry perceived that large campaign contributions had a corrupting impact, thereby
transforming the city government into a “pay-to-play system.”133 On appeal, the petitioner argues,
among other things, that the City of Austin has not demonstrated a sufficient government interest
for the contribution limit because a $350 limit is so “severe” that it belies perception that it was
targeted to the threat of corruption and that furthermore, testimony at trial failed to evidence that
125 873 F.3d 1170, 1172 (9th Cir. 2017), reh'g en banc denied, 889 F.3d 571 (9th Cir. 2018).
126 See id. at 1183 (holding that “Montana's limits are reasonably keyed to the actual evidence showing a risk of
corruption in Montana” and observing that a state legislator “suggested a political action committee could obtain
political favors from an entire block of legislators through contributions totaling just $8,000.”).
127 Lair v. Motl, petition for cert. filed (U.S. July 2018) (No. 18-149) at 15, available at
https://www.supremecourt.gov/DocketPDF/18/18-
149/55981/20180731100706801_Lair%20Cert%20Petition%20Final.pdf (arguing that the Ninth Circuit applied a legal
standard established by the Supreme Court prior to, but rejected by Citizens United and McCutcheon, upholding the
Montana contribution limits absent the requisite evidence of actual or apparent quid pro quo corruption).
128 Id. at 17 (citing McDonnell v. U.S., 136 S. Ct. 2355, 2372).
129 See, e.g., Richard L. Hasen, Brett Kavanaugh May Soon Unshackle All Rich Political Donors, SLATE (Sept. 3,
2018), https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/09/brett-kavanaughs-supreme-court-tenure-could-mean-the-end-of-all-
campaign-finance-limits.html (characterizing the petitioners in Lair as “build[ing] upon Chief Justice Roberts’
McCutcheon decision to argue for a standard that would lead courts to strike down virtually all contribution limits.”)
130 881 F.3d 378 (5th Cir. 2018), reh'g en banc denied, 888 F.3d 163 (5th Cir. 2018).
131 AUSTIN, TEX. CODE, Art. III, § 8(A)(1).
132 Zimmerman, 881 F.3d at 386.
133 Id.
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any actual quid pro quo had occurred.134A ruling by the Court in Zimmerman, depending on its
contours, could clarify the extent of the burden on Congress to prove that any limits it may enact
serve the governmental interest of avoiding quid pro quo corruption or its appearance.
Source Restrictions
In addition to limits on how much a donor may contribute to a campaign, federal campaign
finance law contains several bans—referred to as “source restrictions”—on who may make
campaign contributions. The following sections of the report discuss key aspects of source
restrictions, beginning with the ban on campaign contributions by corporations and labor unions
and the Supreme Court’s invalidation of limits on corporate and union independent spending on
campaigns. Next, the report discusses the bans on campaign contributions by federal contractors
and on contributions and expenditures by foreign nationals. Finally, the report assesses key
Supreme Court holdings that may be instructive in evaluating the constitutionality of policy
options, should Congress consider legislation regarding the sources of campaign contributions.
Ban on Corporate and Labor Union Contributions: PAC Required
FECA prohibits corporations and labor unions from making campaign contributions from their
own funds or “general treasuries.”135 Candidates, however, are permitted to accept contributions
from separate segregated funds or PACs that a corporation or labor union establishes for the
purpose of making contributions.136 Although the Supreme Court in 2010, in Citizens United,
discussed below, invalidated the federal ban prohibiting corporations from funding independent
expenditures out of their general treasuries, Citizens United did not appear to affect the ban on
corporate contributions to candidates and parties.137
Providing the most recent precedent on this restriction, in 2003, in Federal Election Commission
v. Beaumont, the Court upheld the constitutionality of the prohibition on corporations making
direct campaign contributions from their general treasuries in connection with federal elections.138
According to the Court, its jurisprudence on campaign finance regulation—in addition to
providing that limits on contributions are more clearly justified under the First Amendment than
limits on expenditures—respects the judgment that the corporate structure requires careful
regulation to counter the “misuse of corporate advantages.”139 The Court observed that large,
unlimited contributions can threaten “political integrity,” necessitating restrictions in order to
counter corruption.140
134 Zimmerman v. City of Austin, petition for cert. filed (U.S. July 17, 2018) (No. 18-93) at 11-12, available at
https://www.supremecourt.gov/search.aspx?filename=/docket/DocketFiles/html/Public/18-93.html.
135 52 U.S.C. § 30118(a).
136 52 U.S.C. § 30118(b)(2)(C).
137 558 U.S. 310 (2010). For further discussion of Citizens United, see CRS Report R43719, Campaign Finance:
Constitutionality of Limits on Contributions and Expenditures, by L. Paige Whitaker, at 12-15.
138 See Fed. Election Comm’n v. Beaumont, 539 U.S. 146 (2003).
139 Id. at 155.
140 Id.
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Corporate and Labor Union Independent Spending Limits
Unconstitutional
In the 2010 landmark decision of Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, the Supreme
Court invalidated two FECA prohibitions on independent electoral spending by corporations and
labor unions.141 The Court invalidated, first, the long-standing prohibition on corporations and
unions using their general treasury funds for independent expenditures,142 and second, a 2002
BCRA prohibition on the use of such funds for electioneering communications.143 As a result of
Citizens United, corporations and labor unions144 are permitted to use their general treasury funds
to make independent expenditures and electioneering communications, and are not required to
establish a PAC for such spending. Independent expenditures and electioneering communications
are protected speech, the Court announced—regardless of whether the speaker is a corporation—
and merely permitting a corporation to engage in independent electoral speech through a PAC
does not allow the corporation to speak directly nor does it alleviate the First Amendment burden
created by such limits.145
Prior to its decision in Citizens United, in 1978, the Court in First National Bank of Boston v.
Bellotti146 had reaffirmed that the government cannot restrict political speech because the speaker
is a corporation. On the other hand, its 1990 decision of Austin v. Michigan Chamber of
Commerce147 had permitted a restriction on such speech in order to avoid corporations having
disproportionate economic power in elections. In Bellotti, the Court struck down a state law
prohibiting corporate independent expenditures related to referenda. In contrast, the Court in
Austin upheld a state law prohibiting, and imposing criminal penalties on, corporate independent
expenditures that supported or opposed any candidate for state office.
According to the Court in Citizens United, in order to “bypass Buckley and Bellotti,” the Court in
Austin had identified a new governmental interest justifying limits on political speech, the
“antidistortion interest.”148 In Citizens United, the Court rejected the antidistortion rationale it had
relied upon in Austin. Independent expenditures, the Court announced, including those made by
corporations, do not cause corruption or the appearance of corruption.149 The Austin precedent,
according to the Court, “interferes with the ‘open marketplace’ of ideas protected by the First
Amendment” by permitting the speech of millions of associations of citizens—many of them
141 558 U.S. 310 (2010). See also, Am. Tradition P’ship. v. Bullock, 567 U.S. 516 (2014) (rejecting arguments
attempting to distinguish a state law from the federal law invalidated by Citizens United, reiterating that “political
speech does not lose First Amendment protection simply because its source is a corporation.”).
142 Codified at 52 U.S.C. § 30118(a).
143 Codified at 52 U.S.C. § 30118(b)(2)).
144 Although the issue before the Court was limited to the application of the prohibition on independent expenditures
and electioneering communications to Citizens United, a corporation, the reasoning of the opinion also appears likely to
apply to labor unions. (“The text and purpose of the First Amendment point in the same direction: Congress may not
prohibit political speech, even if the speaker is a corporation or union.”) Citizens United, 558 U.S. at 376.
145 See id. at 337.
146 435 U.S. 765 (1978).
147 494 U.S. 652 (1990).
148 Citizens United, 558 U.S. at 348 (determining that “the corrosive and distorting” impact of large amounts of money
that were acquired with the benefit of the corporate form, but were unrelated to the public’s support for the
corporation’s political views, constituted a sufficiently compelling governmental interest to justify such a restriction).
149 See id. at 357.
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small corporations without large aggregations of wealth—to be banned.150 Notably, the Court also
concluded that supporting the ban on corporate expenditures would have the “dangerous” and
“unacceptable” result of permitting Congress to ban the political speech of media corporations.151
In sum, the Supreme Court in Citizens United overruled its holding in Austin and the portion of
its decision in McConnell upholding the facial validity of a BCRA prohibition on electioneering
communications, finding that the McConnell Court had relied on Austin.152
In Citizens United, in addition to the ban on corporations and labor unions making independent
expenditures using their general treasury funds for independent expenditures, the Court also
struck down the ban on the use of such funds for electioneering communications. Notably, the
Supreme Court, in a 2007 decision, FEC v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc. (WRTL),153 had narrowed
the definition of an electioneering communication in order to mitigate concerns that the law could
prohibit First Amendment protected issue speech, known as issue advocacy. In WRTL, the Court
interpreted the term to encompass only express advocacy154 (for example, communications stating
“vote for” or “vote against”) or the “functional equivalent” of express advocacy. That is, the
Court advised that communications that could reasonably be interpreted as something other than
an appeal to vote for or against a specific candidate should not be considered electioneering
communications. Despite the limiting principle imposed by WRTL, the Court in Citizens United
observed that both prohibitions were a “ban on speech” in violation of the First Amendment.155 In
comparison to the prohibitions at issue in Citizens United, which include criminal penalties, the
Court pointed out that it has invalidated even less-restrictive laws under the First Amendment,
such as laws requiring permits and impounding royalties.156
Also of note, the statute prohibiting corporate expenditures contained an exception that permitted
corporations to use their treasury funds to establish, administer, and solicit contributions to a PAC
in order to make expenditures.157 The Court, however, rejected the argument that permitting a
150 Id. at 354.
151 Id. at 351.
152 See id. at 365-66. Referencing Justice Scalia’s concurrence in WRTL, the Court agreed with the conclusion that
“Austin was a significant departure from ancient First Amendment principles,” and held “that stare decisis does not
compel the continued acceptance of Austin.” Id. at 319 (quoting WRTL, 551 U.S. at 449 (Scalia, J., concurring in part
and concurring in judgment)).
153 551 U.S. 449 (2007). WRTL was decided four years after the Supreme Court upheld the electioneering
communication prohibition against a First Amendment facial challenge in McConnell v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 540
U.S. 93 (2003). While not expressly overruling McConnell, the Court in WRTL limited the prohibition’s application.
154 In Buckley, the Supreme Court provided the genesis for the concept of issue and express advocacy communications.
In order to avoid invalidation of a provision of FECA on grounds of unconstitutional vagueness, the Court applied a
limiting construction so that the provision applied only to noncandidate “expenditures for communications that in
express terms advocate the election or defeat of a clearly identified candidate for federal office” (i.e., express
advocacy). In a footnote, the Court explained that this limiting construction would restrict the application of the
provision to communications containing express advocacy terms, such as “vote for,” “elect,” “support,” “cast your
ballot for,” “Smith for Congress,” “vote against,” “defeat,” and “reject.” Buckley, 424 U.S. at 44, n.52.
155 Citizens United, 558 U.S. at 339.
156 See id. at 337. According to the Court, the following actions would constitute a felony under the law: the Sierra Club
running an ad within 60 days of a general election exhorting the public to disapprove of a Congressman who supports
logging in national forests; the National Rifle Association publishing a book urging the public to vote for the challenger
to an incumbent U.S. Senator who supports a handgun ban; and the American Civil Liberties Union creating a website
telling the public to vote for a presidential candidate because of the candidate’s defense of free speech. Such
prohibitions, the Court concluded, “are classic examples of censorship.” Id.
157 52 U.S.C. § 30118(b)(2)(c). The law also permits a corporation to establish a PAC in order to make contribution s.
As a result of Citizens United, corporations are currently only required to use PAC funds to make contributions, not
expenditures.
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corporation to establish a PAC mitigated the complete ban on speech that the law imposed on the
corporation itself, explaining that as corporations and PACs are separate associations, allowing a
PAC to speak does not translate into allowing a corporation to speak.158 Enumerating the
“onerous” and “expensive” reporting requirements associated with PAC administration, the Court
announced that even if a PAC could permit a corporation to speak, “the option to form a PAC
does not alleviate the First Amendment problems” with the law.159 Further, the Court announced
that such administrative requirements may even prevent a corporation from having enough time
to create a PAC in order to communicate its views in a given campaign.160
Ban on Federal Contractor Contributions: “Pay-to-Play” Prohibition
Another type of source restriction—known as a “pay-to-play” prohibition—bans federal office
candidates from accepting or soliciting contributions from federal government contractors.161
Pay-to-play laws generally serve to restrict officials from conditioning government contracts or
benefits on political support in the form of campaign contributions to the controlling political
party or public officials. “Pay-to-play” can be viewed as a more subtle form of political
corruption because it may involve anticipatory action, and potential future benefits, as opposed to
any explicit, current quid pro quo agreement. This FECA prohibition applies at any time between
the earlier of the commencement of contract negotiations or when the requests for proposals are
sent out, and the termination of negotiations or completion of contract162 performance, whichever
is later.163 FECA regulations further specify that the ban on contractor contributions applies to the
assets of a partnership that is a federal contractor, but permits individual partners to make
contributions from personal assets.164 The ban also applies to the assets of individuals and sole
proprietors who are federal contractors, which include their business, personal, or other funds
under their control, although the spouses of individuals and sole proprietors who are federal
contractors and their employees are permitted to make contributions from their personal funds.165
As with corporate direct or “treasury fund” contributions, FECA provides an exception to the ban
on government contractor contributions, permitting candidates to accept contributions from PACs
that are established and administered by corporations or labor unions contracting with the
government.166
In 2015, a unanimous en banc U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit (D.C. Circuit) upheld
the ban on campaign contributions by federal government contractors, limiting the application of
its ruling to the ban on contractors making contributions to candidates, parties, and traditional
PACs that make contributions to candidates and parties.167 The 11-judge court held that the law
comported with both the First Amendment and the equal protection component of the Fifth
158 See Citizens United, 558 U.S. at 337.
159 Id.
160 See id. at 339.
161 52 U.S.C. § 30119(a).
162 The term contract includes “[a] sole source, negotiated, or advertised procurement.” 11 C.F.R. §115.1(c)(1).
163 11 C.F.R. § 115.1(b).
164 Id. § 115.4.
165 Id. § 115.5.
166 52 U.S.C. § 30119(b).
167 See Wagner v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 793 F.3d 1 (D.C. Cir. 2015), cert. denied sub nom. Miller v. Fed. Election
Comm’n, 136 S. Ct. 895 (2016).
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Amendment.168 According to the D.C. Circuit, the federal ban serves “sufficiently important”
government interests by guarding against quid pro quo corruption and its appearance, and
protecting merit-based administration.169 Further, the court held that the ban is closely drawn to
the government’s interests because it does not restrict contractors from engaging in other types of
political engagement, including fundraising or campaigning.170 The number of convictions for
pay-to-play infractions, dating back to when the ban was first enacted in 1940,171 justifies its
continued existence, according to the D.C. Circuit, because the risk of quid pro quo corruption
and its appearance has not dissipated. According to the D.C. Circuit, this suggests that if the ban
were no longer in effect, “more money in exchange for contracts would flow through the same
channels already on display.”172 In 2016, the Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal of the
ruling.173
Ban on Foreign National Contributions and Expenditures and
Restrictions on Foreign National Involvement in U.S. Campaigns
FECA generally prohibits foreign nationals from donating or spending money in connection with
any U.S. election.174 For the purposes of this prohibition, a foreign national is defined to include a
foreign government, a foreign political party, and a foreign citizen, excepting those holding dual
U.S. citizenship and those admitted as lawful permanent residents of the United States (i.e.,
“green card” holders).175 Specifically, the law prohibits foreign nationals from “directly or
indirectly” making a contribution or donation of money “or other thing of value” in connection
with any U.S. election, or making a promise to do so, either expressly or implied; or a
168 See id. at 32-33.
169 Id. at 21-26. Since its landmark decision in Buckley, the Court has afforded contributions and expenditures different
degrees of First Amendment protection. Under Buckley, contribution limits will be upheld if the government can
demonstrate that they are a “closely drawn” means of achieving a “sufficiently important” governmental interest. This
is the test the D.C. Circuit applied in Wagner.
170 See id. at 25.
171 Congress originally adopted the prohibition in 1940 amendments to the Hatch Act, P.L. 76-753, § 5(a), 54 Stat. 772
(1940). See also federal contracting requirements and regulations that generally stress competitive selection of vendors
and attempt to protect the federal procurement and contracting process from political or partisan influences. For
example, when using “simplified acquisition procedures,” contract officers are instructed to “obtain supplies and
services from the source whose offer is the most advantageous to the Government,” 48 C.F.R. § 13.104; when using
sealed bidding, the contract is to be made with a “responsible bidder whose bid . . . will be most advantageous to the
Government, considering only price and the price-related factors,” Id.§ 14.408-1(a)); and when using contracting by
negotiation “cost or price” plays a “dominant role” in source selection, but other “tradeoff” factors, such as “the risk of
unsuccessful contract performance,” may properly be weighed to determine “the best inte rest of the Government” in a
contract, Id. §§ 15.101, 15.101-1, 15.101-2, 15.304. Contracts may not be awarded on the basis of personal or political
favoritism, and all potential contractors should be treated “with complete impartiality and with preferenti al treatment
for none,” Id. §§ 1.102-2(c)(3), 3.101-1. General ethical standards in the executive branch similarly note that an
executive official is to “act impartially and not give preferential treatment to any private organization or individual.”
Exec. Order No. 12,647, 5 C.F.R. § 2635.101(b)(8) (1989).
172 See Wagner, 793 F.3d at 18. (“More recent evidence confirms that human nature has not changed since corrupt quid
pro quos and other attacks on merit-based administration first spurred the development of the present legislative
scheme. Of course, we would not expect to find—and we cannot demand—continuing evidence of large-scale quid pro
quo corruption or coercion involving federal contractor contributions because such contributions have been banned
since 1940.”). Id. at 14.
173 See Miller v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 136 S. Ct. 895 (2016).
174 52 U.S.C. § 30121(a).
175 Id. § 30121(b)(2).
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contribution or donation to a political party.176 Furthermore, as with other coordinated
expenditures, this ban on contributions would include any communication that a foreign national
makes in coordination with a candidate’s campaign or political party, which would be treated as
an in-kind contribution.177 In addition, FECA expressly prohibits a candidate from soliciting,
accepting, or receiving contributions from foreign nationals.178
The Act further prohibits foreign nationals from making expenditures; independent expenditures;
or disbursements for electioneering communications.179 FECA regulations specify that it is
unlawful to knowingly provide “substantial assistance” in the solicitation, making, acceptance, or
receipt of a prohibited contribution or donation, or in the making of a prohibited expenditure,
independent expenditure, or disbursement.180 Further, the regulations define “knowingly” to
require that a person “have actual knowledge” that the source of the funds solicited, accepted, or
received is a foreign national; have awareness “of facts that would lead a reasonable person to
conclude that there is a substantial probability” that the source of the funds is a foreign national;
or awareness “of facts that would lead a reasonable person to inquire” whether the source of the
funds is a foreign national, but fail to conduct a reasonable inquiry.181
In addition, FECA regulations further specify that foreign nationals are prohibited from directing
or participating in the decisionmaking process of entities involved in U.S. elections, including
decisions regarding the making of contributions, donations, expenditures, or disbursements in
connection with any U.S. election or decisions concerning the administration of a political
committee.182 In a series of advisory opinions, the FEC has provided specific guidance for
compliance with the restrictions on foreign nationals. For example, the FEC has determined that a
U.S. corporation that is a subsidiary of a foreign corporation may establish a PAC that makes
contributions to federal candidates as long as the foreign parent does not finance any
contributions either directly or through a subsidiary, and no foreign national participates in PAC
operations and decisionmaking, including regarding campaign contributions.183
In 2012, the Supreme Court summarily affirmed a three-judge federal district court panel ruling
that upheld the constitutionality of the prohibition on foreign nationals making campaign
contributions and independent expenditures.184 In Bluman v. Federal Election Commission, a
federal district court held that for the purposes of First Amendment analysis, the United States has
a compelling interest in limiting foreign citizen participation in American democratic self-
government, thereby preventing foreign influence over the U.S. political process.185 A key
element of a national political community, the court observed, is that “foreign citizens do not
have a constitutional right to participate in, and thus may be excluded from, activities of
176 Id. § 30121(a)(2).
177 See supra pp. 10-12.
178 52 U.S.C. § 30121(a)(1)(C).
179 Id. § 30121.
180 11 C.F.R. § 110.20(h).
181 Id. § 110.20(a)(4).
182 Id. § 110.20(i).
183 See Fed. Election Comm’n AOs 2009-14; 2006-15; 2000-17; 1995-15; 1992-16; 1990-08; and 1985-03.
184 See Bluman v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 800 F. Supp. 2d 281 (D.D.C. 2011), summ. aff’d, 565 U.S. 1104 (2012).
185 Id. at 288. The court in Bluman did not ultimately decide which type of scrutiny to apply because the statute in
dispute involves both the First Amendment and national security, as well as limits on both contributions and
expenditures. Therefore, the court assumed for the sake of argument that it should apply a “strict scrutiny” analysis
(which requires that a statute be narrowly tailored to serve a compelling governmental interest), and found that the
prohibition at issue passed muster even under that level of scrutiny. Id. at 285.
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democratic self-government.”186 Similar to the Court’s decision in WRTL, discussed above, the
district court in Bluman interpreted the ban on independent expenditures to apply only to foreign
nationals engaging in express advocacy and not issue advocacy.187 In other words, under the
court’s interpretation, foreign nationals remain free to engage in “speaking out about issues or
spending money to advocate their views about issues.”188 As to the parameters of express
advocacy, the district court defined the term as an expenditure for “express campaign speech” or
its “functional equivalent,” meaning that it “is susceptible of no reasonable interpretation other
than as an appeal to vote for or against a specific candidate.”189
Constitutional Considerations for Legislation
As discussed above in the section on contribution limits, some commentators have argued that the
Supreme Court in 2014 in McCutcheon may have signaled a willingness in future cases to
evaluate contribution limits under a stricter standard of review than it has in the past.190 If this
were to occur, it seems likely that a court could hold the ban on corporate contributions, and any
related legislative proposals, unconstitutional. Moreover, one commentator has argued that, in
Citizens United, the Court rejected the rationale behind the leading precedent upholding the ban
on corporate contributions in Beaumont, thereby raising the prospect that in a future case, the
Court could have another basis for overturning the ban on corporate contributions.191 That is, in
reaching its holding in Beaumont, the Court seemed to rely on the fact that in view of state-
conferred advantages—including limited liability, perpetual life, and favorable treatment of the
accumulation and distribution of assets—corporations can accumulate and deploy wealth in a
manner that provides them with an unfair advantage in the political marketplace.192 In Citizens
United, however, the Court rejected a similar argument in invalidating the prohibition on
corporations engaging in independent spending.193
On the other hand, as discussed above, the district court’s ruling in Bluman, which the Supreme
Court affirmed in 2012, seems to suggest that legislation to enhance the current ban on foreign
nationals donating or spending money in connection with U.S. elections, so long as its scope was
limited to the regulation of express advocacy or its functional equivalent, might withstand a First
Amendment challenge to the extent that Congress could demonstrate that the restriction furthered
the compelling governmental interest in preventing foreign influence over the U.S. political
process. As Bluman upheld the ban on foreign nationals only to the extent that it applied to
express advocacy or its functional equivalent, legislation that broadly regulates issue advocacy
186 Id.
187 See id. at 290.
188 Id. at 290.
189 Id. at 284-85 (citing WRTL, 551 U.S. at 456, 469-70).
190 See infra p. 16.
191 See Richard Briffault, The Uncertain Future of the Corporate Contribution Ban, 49 VAL. U. L. REV. 397, 424
(2015) (arguing that Citizens United “completely disavowed” the rationale behind the Court’s ruling in Beaumont
determining that corporations present a particular threat to the integrity of politics and campaigns, thereby jeopardizing
the constitutionality of the ban on corporate contributions).
192 See Beaumont, 539 U.S. at 154.
193 See Citizens United, 558 U.S. at 314 (“It is irrelevant for First Amendment purposes that corporate funds may have
little or no correlation to the public’s support for the corporation’s political ideas. All speakers, including individuals
and the media, use money amassed from the economic marketplace to fund their speech, and the First Amendment
protects the resulting speech.” (internal citations and quotations omitted)).
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may be constitutionally vulnerable.194 As one commentator has cautioned, should Congress enact
a statute that broadly prohibits issue advocacy by foreign nationals, including the type of
communications that Russians are accused of making during the 2016 election, “such a statute
would likely run into First Amendment resistance.”195
Disclaimer and Disclosure Requirements
FECA sets forth both disclaimer and disclosure requirements. The term disclaimer generally
refers to statements of attribution that appear directly on a campaign-related communication, and
the term disclosure generally refers to requirements for periodic reporting to the FEC, which are
made available for public inspection. The following sections of the report provide an overview of
FECA disclaimer and disclosure requirements, relevant Supreme Court rulings, and a discussion
of constitutional considerations for legislation, should Congress decide to enact legislation to
enhance or modify such requirements.
Disclaimer
Disclaimer Requirements
Although FECA does not contain the term “disclaimer,” the Act specifies the content of
attribution statements to be included in certain communications, which are known as disclaimer
requirements.196 FECA requires that any public political advertising financed by a political
committee—including candidate committees—include disclaimers.197 In addition, regardless of
the financing source, FECA requires a disclaimer on all public communications that expressly
advocate for the election or defeat of a clearly identified candidate; electioneering
communications;198 and all public communications that solicit contributions.199
For radio and television advertisements by candidate committees, FECA generally requires that
the communication state who paid for the ad, along with an audio statement by the candidate
identifying the candidate and stating that the candidate “has approved” the message.200 In the case
of television ads, the candidate statement is required to be conveyed by an unobscured, full-
screen view of the candidate making the statement, or if the candidate message is conveyed by
voice-over, accompanied by a clearly identifiable image of the candidate, along with a written
message of attribution at the end of the communication.201
Generally, for non-candidate-authorized communications—including ads financed by outside
groups, corporations, and labor unions—FECA likewise requires a disclaimer to clearly state the
name and permanent street address, telephone number, or website address of the person who paid
194 See Bluman, 800 F. Supp. 2d at 284-85 (citing WRTL, 551 U.S. at 456, 469-70).
195 Richard L. Hasen, Essay: Cheap Speech and What It Has Done (To American Democracy), 16 FIRST AMEND. L.
REV. 200, 218 (2017).
196 See Fed. Election Comm’n webpage, Advertising and disclaimers, available at https://www.fec.gov/help-candidates-
and-committees/making-disbursements/advertising/ (last visited Sept. 9, 2018).
197 52 U.S.C. § 30120.
198 Id. § 30104(f)(3).
199 Id. § 30120(a).
200 Id. § 30120(a)(1),(d)(1).
201 Id. § 30120(d)(1).
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for the communication and state that the communication was not authorized by any candidate or
candidate committee.202 In radio and television advertisements, such disclaimers are required to
include in a clearly spoken manner the following audio statement: “________ is responsible for
the content of this advertising,” with the blank to be filled in with the name of the entity paying
for the ad. In addition, in television advertisements, the statement is required to be conveyed by
an unobscured, full-screen view of a representative of the entity paying for the ad, in a voice-
over, along with a written message of attribution at the end of the communication.
Constitutionality of Disclaimer Requirements
In McConnell, by an 8-to-1 vote, the Supreme Court in 2003 upheld the facial validity of the
disclaimer requirements in FECA, as amended by BCRA.203 Specifically, the Court determined
that FECA’s disclaimer requirement “bears a sufficient relationship to the important
governmental interest of ‘shedding the light of publicity on campaign financing.”204 Similarly, in
Citizens United, by an 8-to-1 vote, the Court in 2010 upheld the disclaimer requirement in BCRA
as applied to a movie that an organization produced regarding a presidential candidate and the
broadcast advertisements it planned to run promoting the movie.205 According to the Court, while
they may burden the ability to speak, disclaimer and disclosure requirements “impose no ceiling
on campaign-related activities,” and “do not prevent anyone from speaking.”206 According to the
Court, the disclaimer requirements in BCRA “provid[e] the electorate with information,” and
“insure that the voters are fully informed” about who is speaking.207 Moreover, they facilitate the
ability of a listener or viewer to judge more effectively the arguments they are hearing, and at a
minimum, according to the Court, they clarify that an ad was not financed by a candidate or
party.208
Disclosure
Under FECA, political committees—including candidate committees and super PACs—must
register with the FEC and comply with disclosure requirements.209 Political committees are
required to file periodic reports that disclose the total amount of all contributions they receive,
and the identity, address, occupation, and employer of any person who contributes more than
$200 during a calendar year.210 In addition, entities other than political committees—such as labor
unions and corporations, including incorporated tax-exempt Section 501(c)(4) organizations—
making independent expenditures or electioneering communications have generally been required
to disclose information to the FEC, including the identity of certain donors over specific dollar
thresholds.211 These requirements have been the subject of litigation, as discussed below. The
202 Id. § 30120(a)(3).
203 See McConnell, 540 U.S. at 230-31.
204 Id. at 231.
205 See Citizens United, 558 U.S. at 367.
206 Id. at 366.
207 Id. at 368.
208 See id.
209 52 U.S.C. § 30103.
210 52 U.S.C. § 30104.
211 FECA requires any “person” making independent expenditures to file disclosure reports, and defines “person” to
include an individual, partnership, committee, association, corporation, labor organization, or any other organization or
group of persons, but does not include the federal government. 52 U.S.C. §§ 30104(c)(1), 30101(11).
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FEC is required to make these reports publicly available on the internet within 48 hours of receipt
or within 24 hours if the report is filed electronically. The FEC is also required to make the
reports available for public inspection in their offices.212
Independent Expenditure Requirements
Generally, FECA requires organizations making independent expenditures that aggregate more
than $250 in a calendar year to disclose (1) whether an independent expenditure supports or
opposes a candidate, (2) whether it was made independently of a campaign, and (3) the identity of
each person who contributed more than $200 to the organization specifically “for the purpose of
furthering an independent expenditure.”213 FECA requires organizations to file these reports
quarterly.214 Up to 20 days before an election, an organization must file a report each time it
spends at least $10,000 on independent expenditures relating to the same election, within 48
hours of incurring the cost of the expenditure. Less than 20 days before an election, an
organization must file a report each time it spends at least $1,000 on independent expenditures
relating to the same election, within 24 hours of incurring the cost of the expenditure.215 FECA
regulations require organizations that spend or have reason to expect to spend more than $50,000
on independent expenditures to file reports electronically.216
Until a recent court ruling discussed below, the donor disclosure regulation promulgated under
the Act generally applied only to those donors who contributed money specifically “for the
purpose of furthering the reported independent expenditure.”217 As a result, unless a donation to
an organization was made specifically for the purpose of funding a particular independent
expenditure, the FEC has not required an organization to disclose the donor’s identity. This
“purpose requirement” for donor disclosure, however, has been challenged in court. In August
2018, in Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington (CREW) v. Federal Election
Commission, a federal district court invalidated the regulation, holding that it requires
significantly less disclosure than the statute mandates.218 As a result, unless successfully appealed,
this ruling will require groups making independent expenditures to disclose more of their donors
than was required under the invalidated regulation. The court stayed its order for 45 days, until
September 17, in order to provide the FEC with time to issue interim regulations that comport
with the underlying FECA disclosure requirement, but as of the date of this report, the FEC has
not issued interim regulations. On September 18, the Supreme Court denied a request for a stay of
the district court ruling, leaving the lower court’s decision intact, unless it is successfully
appealed.219
212 52 U.S.C. § 30104(a)(11).
213 52 U.S.C. § 30104(c).
214 52 U.S.C. § 30104(a)(4).
215 52 U.S.C. § 30104(a)(4); 11 C.F.R. § 109.10.
216 52 U.S.C. § 30104(a)(11)(A); 11 C.F.R. § 104.18(a).
217 11 C.F.R. § 109.10(e(1)(vi).
218 See CREW v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 2018 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 130774, *127 -29 (Aug. 3, 2018) (invalidating 11
C.F.R. § 109.10(e)(1)(vi), promulgated under 52 U.S.C. § 30104(c), under the first step of the Chevron analysis, which
inquires whether Congress has directly addressed the question at issue and if congressional intent is clear, requiring the
agency to effect that intent) (citing Chevron U.S.A. Inc. v. NRDC, 467 U.S. 837 (1984); SAS Inst. v. Iancu, 138 S. Ct.
1348, 1358 (2018); Pereira v. Sessions, 138 S. Ct. 2105, 2113 (2018)).
219 See Crossroads Grassroots Policy Strategies v. CREW, stay denied, No. 18A274, (U.S. Sept. 18, 2018).
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Electioneering Communication Requirements
With regard to electioneering communications, FECA requires organizations220 making
disbursements aggregating over $10,000 during a calendar year to disclose certain information,
including the identity and principal place of business of the corporation making the disbursement,
the amount of each disbursement over $200, and the names of candidates identified in the
communication.221 Additionally, FECA requires the organization to disclose its donors who
contributed at least $1,000. The statute also provides an option for an organization seeking to
avoid disclosure of all its donors. If an organization establishes a separate bank account,
consisting only of donations from U.S. citizens and legal resident aliens made directly to the
account for electioneering communications, then the organization is required to disclose only
those donors who contributed at least $1,000 to the account.222 Generally, FECA requires that
organizations file electioneering communication reports by the first date in a calendar year that an
organization makes a disbursement aggregating more than $10,000 for the direct costs of
producing or airing an electioneering communication. In addition, FECA requires an organization
to file a report each time it makes such disbursements aggregating more than $10,000 since the
last filing.223
Similar to the exception contained within the disclosure regulation for independent expenditures,
an FEC regulation provides an exception to the donor disclosure requirement for electioneering
communications. The regulation permits organizations making disbursements for electioneering
communications to disclose only the identity of each person who made a donation of at least
$1,000 specifically “for the purpose of furthering” electioneering communications.224 This
regulation—specifically, the purpose requirement contained in the regulation—has been the topic
of ongoing litigation. Most recently, in 2016, a three-judge panel of the D.C. Circuit upheld the
regulation, determining, among other things, that the exception contained in the regulation
protects the First Amendment.225 In 2016, the D.C. Circuit denied an appeal for an en banc
rehearing of the case.226
220 Specifically, FECA requires any “person” making a disbursement for an electioneering communication to
independent expenditures to file disclosure reports, and defines “person” to include an individual, partnership,
committee, association, corporation, labor organization, or any other organization or group of persons, but does not
include the federal government. 52 U.S.C. §§ 30104(f)(1), 30101(11).
221 52 U.S.C. § 30104(f).
222 52 U.S.C. § 30104(f)(2)(E),(F).
223 52 U.S.C. § 30104(f)(4); 11 C.F.R. §104.20.
224 11 C.F.R. §104.20(c)(9). The FEC promulgated this regulation in response to the Supreme Court’s ruling in Fed.
Election Comm’n v. Wisc. Right to Life, Inc (WRTL), 441 U.S. 449 (2007), and prior to its ruling in Citizens United v.
Fed. Election Comm’n, 558 U.S. 310 (2010). For further discussion of these decisions, see CRS Report R43719,
Campaign Finance: Constitutionality of Limits on Contributions and Expenditures, by L. Paige Whitaker at pp. 12-15.
225 See Van Hollen v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 811 F. 3d. 486, 495, 501 (D.C. Cir. 2016) reh'g en banc denied 2016 U.S.
App. LEXIS 17528 (D.C. Cir. 2016) (holding that the lower court erred in concluding that the regulation—requiring
that corporations and labor organizations disclose only those donations made for the purpose of furthering
electioneering communications—failed both at Chevron “Step Two” and the arbitrary and capricious stages because the
“purpose requirement” in the regulation comported with the text, history, and purposes of the underlying statute, 52
U.S.C.S. § 30104(f), and that in promulgating the regulation, the FEC exercised its discretion to protect the First
Amendment.); (“By affixing a purpose requirement to BCRA’s disclosure provision, the FEC exercised its unique
prerogative to safeguard the First Amendment when implementing its congressional directives.”) Id. at 501.
226 See Van Hollen v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 2016 U.S. App. LEXIS 17528 (D.C. Cir. 2016).
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Constitutionality of Disclosure
In Buckley227—and, more recently, in McConnell,228 Citizens United,229 Doe v. Reed,230 and a
summary affirmance in Independence Institute v. Federal Election Commission231—the Court has
generally affirmed the constitutionality of disclosure requirements. While acknowledging that
compelled disclosure can infringe on the right to privacy of association and belief as guaranteed
under the First Amendment, the Court has identified overriding governmental interests—such as
safeguarding the integrity of the electoral process by promoting transparency and
accountability—that outweigh such infringement. In addition, as discussed below, the Court
appears to have consistently determined that the First Amendment does not require limiting
disclosure requirements to speech that is the functional equivalent of express advocacy.
In Buckley, the Court identified three governmental interests justifying FECA disclosure
requirements.232 First, the Court determined, disclosure provides the electorate with information
as to the source of campaign money, how it is spent, and “the interests to which a candidate is
most likely to be responsive”—in other words, an informational interest.233 Second, the Court
stated that disclosure serves to deter corruption and its appearance by uncovering large
contributions and expenditures “to the light of publicity,” observing that voters with information
regarding a candidate’s highest donors are better able to detect “post-election special favors” by
an officeholder in exchange for the contributions.234 Third, the Court identified disclosure
requirements as an essential method of detecting violations to refer to law enforcement.235 In
upholding the constitutionality of FECA’s donor disclosure requirements for independent
expenditures, the Court determined that so long as they encompass only funds used for express
advocacy communications, the requirement is constitutional.236 Such donor disclosure “increases
the fund of information” regarding who supports a given candidate, and that informational
interest can be equally strong for independent spending as it is for spending that is coordinated
with a candidate or party.237
The Court in McConnell rejected a facial challenge to the enhanced disclosure requirements set
forth in BCRA.238 According to McConnell, the Court in Buckley distinguished between express
advocacy and issue advocacy for the purposes of statutory construction, not constitutional
command, and therefore, the First Amendment did not require creating “a rigid barrier” between
227 424 U.S. 1 (1976).
228 540 U.S. 93 (2003).
229 558 U.S. 310 (2010).
230 561 U.S. 186 (2010).
231 137 S. Ct. 1204 (2017).
232 See Buckley, 424 U.S. at 66-68.
233 Id. at 66-67.
234 Id. at 67.
235 See id. at 66-68.
236 See id. at 79-80. (“[W]hen the maker of the expenditure is … an individual other than a candidate or a group other
than a ‘political committee,’ the relation of the information sought to the purposes of the Act may be too remote. To
insure that the reach … is not impermissibly broad, we construe ‘expenditure’ … to reach only funds used for
communications that expressly advocate the election or defeat of a clearly identified candidate. This reading is directed
precisely to that spending that is unambiguously related to the campaign of a particular federal candidate.”).
237 Id. at 81.
238 See McConnell, 540 U.S. at 201-02.
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the two in this case.239 In other words, the Court determined, because electioneering
communications are intended to influence an election, the absence of “magic words” of express
advocacy do not obviate the government’s interest in requiring disclosure of such ads in order to
combat corruption or its appearance.240 Furthermore, as in Buckley, the McConnell Court held
that disclosure requirements in BCRA serve the “important state interests” of providing voters
with information, deterring corruption and avoiding its appearance, and assisting with
enforcement of the law.241
Expanding on its holding in Buckley, in Citizens United, the Court upheld FECA’s disclosure
requirements for electioneering communications as applied to a political movie and broadcast
advertisements promoting the movie.242 Citing Buckley, the Court determined that while they may
burden the ability to speak, disclosure requirements “impose no ceiling on campaign-related
activities,” and “do not prevent anyone from speaking.”243 Accordingly, the Court evaluated the
requirements under a standard of “exacting scrutiny,” a less-rigorous standard than the “strict
scrutiny” standard the Court has used to evaluate restrictions on campaign spending.244 Exacting
scrutiny requires a “substantial relation” between the disclosure requirement and a “sufficiently
important” government interest.245 Notably, in Citizens United, the Court expressly rejected the
argument that the scope of FECA’s disclosure requirements for electioneering communications
must be limited to speech that is express advocacy, or the “functional equivalent of express
advocacy.”246 In support of its determination, the Court pointed out that in Buckley and other
cases, it has simultaneously struck down limits on certain types of speech—such as independent
expenditure communications—while upholding disclosure requirements for the same type of
speech.247 In response to the argument that disclosure requirements could deter donations to an
organization because donors may fear retaliation once their identity becomes known, the Court
stated that such requirements would be unconstitutional as applied to an organization where there
was a reasonable probability that its donors would be subject to threats, harassment, or
reprisals.248
Similarly, in a case upholding the constitutionality of a Washington State public records law, Doe
v. Reed, the Court relied on and underscored its holdings in Buckley and Citizens United
regarding compelled disclosure.249 The Washington statute requires that all public records—
including signatures on referendum petitions—be made available for public inspection and
239 Id. at 193.
240 Id. at 193-94.
241 Id. at 196.
242 See Citizens United, 558 U.S. at 366-371.
243 Id. at 366 (quoting Buckley, 424 U.S. at 64).
244 See id. at 366-67.
245 Id.
246 Id. at 369-370 (rejecting the contention that because the Court in WRTL, discussed supra at p. 20, had construed the
FECA prohibition on corporate and labor union funded electioneering communications to reach only the functional
equivalent of express advocacy, that the First Amendment similarly required a limited application of the FECA
disclosure requirements for electioneering communications).
247 See id. at 367. The Court noted that in McConnell, three Justices who would have struck down the FECA ban on
corporate independent expenditures nonetheless voted to uphold its disclosure and disclaimer requirements. See id.
(citing McConnell, 540 U.S. at 321 (opinion of Kennedy, J., joined by Rehnquist, C. J., and Scalia, J.). The Court also
noted that it has upheld the constitutionality of lobbyist registration and disclosure requirements even though a ban on
lobbying would be unconstitutional. See id. (citing U.S. v. Harriss, 347 U.S. 612, 625 (1954)).
248 See id. at 370; NAACP v. Alabama, 357 U.S. 449, 462-63 (1958).
249 See Doe v. Reed, 561 U.S. 186 (2010).
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copying.250 Categorizing the Washington statute as a disclosure law and therefore “not a
prohibition of speech,” the Court evaluated its constitutionality under the First Amendment using
the standard of exacting scrutiny.251 The Court upheld the law as substantially related to the
governmental interest of safeguarding the integrity of the electoral process, and announced that
public disclosure “promotes transparency and accountability in the electoral process to an extent
other measures cannot.”252 Regarding the argument that the disclosure law would subject petition
signatories to threats, harassment, and reprisals, the Court concluded that there was insufficient
evidence to support the assertion.253
In 2017, in Independence Institute v. Federal Election Commission, the Supreme Court
summarily affirmed a three-judge federal district court ruling upholding the constitutionality of
FECA’s disclosure requirements for electioneering communications.254 In this case, the
challengers of the law argued, among other things, that an ad they sought to run was
constitutionally protected issue advocacy and therefore was exempt from disclosure
requirements.255 Rejecting this argument, the district court observed that the Supreme Court has
twice upheld the constitutionality of the FECA disclosure requirements for electioneering
communications, first in McConnell, and once again in Citizens United, where the Court
expressly held that the First Amendment does not require limiting disclosure requirements to
speech that is the functional equivalent of express advocacy.256 According to the district court,
“the First Amendment is not so tight-fisted as to permit large-donor disclosure only when the
speaker invokes magic words of explicit endorsement.”257
Constitutional Considerations for Legislation
Should Congress consider legislation to increase FECA’s disclaimer and disclosure requirements,
the Supreme Court’s relevant case law informs the constitutional bounds of such legislation.
Regarding disclaimer requirements, as discussed above, the Court has upheld the constitutionality
of current disclaimer requirements in FECA, by an 8-to-1 vote in 2003 in McConnell,258 and
again by an 8-to-1 vote in 2010 in Citizens United.259 In upholding the current requirements, the
Court has emphasized how disclaimers provide critical information about the source of
advertisements so that the electorate can more effectively judge the arguments they hear.260
Hence, the Court has signaled that should Congress enact additional disclaimer requirements,
such requirements are likely to be upheld to the extent they further the informational interests of
the electorate.261 On the other hand, the Court in Citizens United emphasized and appeared to rely
250 See id. at 192.
251 Id. at 196.
252 Id. at 199.
253 See id. at 201.
254 See Indep. Inst. v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 216 F. Supp. 3d 176 (D.D.C. 2016), summ. aff’d, Indep. Inst. v. Fed.
Election Comm’n, 137 S. Ct. 1204 (2017).
255 See id. at 185.
256 See id. at 185-186.
257 Id. at 189.
258 See McConnell, 540 U.S. at 230-31.
259 See Citizens United, 558 U.S. at 366-371.
260 See id. at 367.
261 See, e.g., Daniel I. Weiner and Benjamin T. Brickner, Electoral Integrity in Campaign Finance Law, 20 N.Y.U. J.
Legis. & Pub. Pol’y 101, 105-106 (2017) (arguing that only disclaimer and disclosure requirements “have escaped the
new majority’s narrow corruption paradigm,” but maintaining that even under Citizens United, in addition to providing
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upon the fact that the disclaimer requirements being evaluated in that case did not prevent anyone
from speaking.262 Therefore, should a disclaimer requirement be so burdensome that it impedes
the ability of a candidate or group to speak—for example, a requirement that a disclaimer
comprise an unreasonable period of time in an ad—it could be invalidated as a violation of the
guarantees of free speech under the First Amendment.
Similarly, regarding disclosure requirements, as discussed above, the Court has generally upheld
their constitutionality, determining that they serve the governmental interests of providing voters
with information, deterring corruption and avoiding its appearance, and facilitating enforcement
of the law.263 Should Congress decide to consider legislation providing for enhanced disclosure
requirements, it is notable that the Court in Citizens United expressly held that the First
Amendment does not require limiting disclosure requirements to speech that is the functional
equivalent of express advocacy. Therefore, it appears that a court would likely uphold legislation
providing for increased disclosure of funding sources for communications containing express
advocacy, as well as issue advocacy, to the extent that such regulation can be shown to further
the governmental interests identified by the Court.
Criminal Penalties
In addition to a series of civil penalties,264 FECA sets forth criminal penalties for knowing and
willful violations of the Act.265 This section of the report outlines the criminal penalties applicable
to persons who violate the Act.
Generally, FECA provides that any person who knowingly and willfully commits a violation of
any provision of the Act that involves the making, receiving, or reporting of any contribution,
donation, or expenditure of $25,000 or more per calendar year shall be fined under Title 18 of the
U.S. Code, or imprisoned for not more than five years, or both.266 If the amount involved is
$2,000 or more per calendar year, but is less than $25,000, the Act provides for a fine under Title
18, or imprisonment for not more than one year, or both.267
Notably, FECA provides specific penalties for knowing and willful violations of the prohibition
on contributions made by one person “in the name of another person,”268 discussed above in the
section of the report entitled “Ban on Contributions Made Through a Conduit.”269 In addition to
the possibility of fines being imposed, for violations involving amounts over $10,000 but less
than $25,000, violators could be subject to imprisonment for not more than two years, and for
violations involving amounts over $25,000, imprisonment for not more than five years.270
voters with information, disclaimers serve to avoid corruption).
262 See Citizens United, 558 U.S. at 366.
263 But see Deborah G. Johnson et al., Symposium: Privacy, Democracy, and Elections: Campaign Disclosure, Privacy
and Transparency, 19 WM. & MARY BILL OF RTS. J. 959, 971-72 (2011) (cautioning that in the digital age, campaign
finance disclosure requirements create heightened privacy interests because data is manipulated and selectively posted).
264 52 U.S.C. § 30109(a). For further discussion, see CRS Report R44319, The Federal Election Commission:
Enforcement Process and Selected Issues for Congress, by R. Sam Garrett.
265 Id. § 30109(d).
266 Id. § 30109(d)(1)(A)(i).
267 Id. § 30109(d)(1)(A)(ii).
268 Id. § 30122.
269 See supra p. 9.
270 52 U.S.C. § 30109(d)(1)(D).
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In most instances, the U.S. Department of Justice initiates the prosecution of criminal violations
of FECA, but the law also provides that the FEC may refer an apparent violation to the Justice
Department for criminal prosecution under certain circumstances.271 Specifically, if the FEC, by
an affirmative vote of four, determines that there is probable cause to believe that a knowing and
willful violation of FECA involving a contribution or expenditure aggregating over $2,000 during
a calendar year, or a knowing and willful violation of the Presidential Election Campaign Fund
Act272 or the Presidential Primary Matching Payment Account Act273 has or is about to occur, the
FEC may refer the parent violation to the U.S. Attorney General.274 In such instances, the FEC is
not required to attempt to correct or prevent such violation.275
Author Information
L. Paige Whitaker
Legislative Attorney
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permissio n of the copyright holder if you wish to
copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
271 According to a 2015 media report, since 2008, the FEC has referred no campaign finance enforcement cases to the
Department of Justice for criminal prosecution, and prior to that, such referrals were infrequent. See Kenneth P. Doyle,
FEC Rarely Votes to Refer Criminal Cases to Justice, Bloomberg BNA Daily Report for Executives (July 29, 2015),
http://www.bna.com/fec-rarely-votes-n17179934048.
272 Codified at 26 U.S.C. § 9001 et seq.
273 Codified at 26 U.S.C. § 9031 et seq.
274 52 U.S.C. § 30109(a))(5)(C).
275 Id.